General Statistics

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">library(knitr)

1. figures makde will go to directory called figures, will make them as both png and pdf files

opts_chunk$set(fig.path='figures/',dev=c('png','pdf')) options(scipen = 2, digits = 3)

1. set echo and message to TRUE if you want to display code blocks and code output respectively

knitr::knit_hooks$set(inline = function(x) {

 knitr:::format_sci(x, 'md')

})

superpose.eb <- function (x, y, ebl, ebu = ebl, length = 0.08, ...)

 arrows(x, y + ebu, x, y - ebl, angle = 90, code = 3,
 length = length, ...)

se <- function(x) sd(x, na.rm=T)/sqrt(length(x))

1. load these packages, nearly always needed

library(tidyr) library(dplyr)</syntaxhighlight>

Attaching package: 'dplyr'

The following objects are masked from 'package:stats':

    filter, lag

The following objects are masked from 'package:base':

    intersect, setdiff, setequal, union

<syntaxhighlight lang="r"># sets maize and blue color scheme color.scheme <- c('#00274c', '#ffcb05')</syntaxhighlight>

General Statistical Methods

There are several important concepts that we will adhere to in our group. These involve design considerations, execution considerations and analysis concerns. The standard for our field is null hypothesis significance testing, which means that we are generally comparing our data to a null hypothesis, generating an effect size and a p-value. As a general rule, we report both of these both within our Rmd/qmd scripts, and in our publications.

We generally use an <math display="inline">\alpha</math> of <math display="inline">p<0.05</math> to determine significance, which means that (if true) we are rejecting the null hypothesis. This is known as null hypothesis significance testing.

An alternative approach is to use a Bayesian approach, described in more detail in this document

Pairwise Testing

If you have two groups (and two groups only) that you want to know if they are different, you will normally want to do a pairwise test. This is not the case if you have paired data (before and after for example). The most common of these is something called a Student’s t-test, but this test has two key assumptions:

• The data are normally distributed
• The two groups have equal variance

Testing the Assumptions

Best practice is to first test for normality, and if that test passes, to then test for equal variance

Testing Normality

To test normality, we use a Shapiro-Wilk test (details on Wikipedia on each of your two groups). Below is an example where there are two groups:

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#create seed for reproducibility set.seed(1265) test.data <- tibble(Treatment=c(rep("Experiment",6), rep("Control",6)),

          Result = rnorm(n=12, mean=10, sd=3))

1. test.data$Treatment <- as.factor(test.data$Treatment)

kable(test.data, caption="The test data used in the following examples")</syntaxhighlight>

The test data used in the following examples

Treatment	Result
Experiment	11.26
Experiment	8.33
Experiment	9.94
Experiment	11.83
Experiment	6.56
Experiment	11.41
Control	8.89
Control	11.59
Control	9.39
Control	8.74
Control	6.31
Control	7.82

Each of the two groups, in this case Test and Control must have Shapiro-Wilk tests done separately. Some sample code for this is below (requires dplyr to be loaded):

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#filter only for the control data control.data <- filter(test.data, Treatment=="Control")

1. The broom package makes the results of the test appear in a table, with the tidy command

library(broom)

1. run the Shapiro-Wilk test on the values

shapiro.test(control.data$Result) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Shapiro-Wilk test for normality of control data")</syntaxhighlight>

Shapiro-Wilk test for normality of control data

statistic	p.value	method
0.968	0.88	Shapiro-Wilk normality test

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">experiment.data <- filter(test.data, Treatment=="Experiment") shapiro.test(test.data$Result) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Shapiro-Wilk test for normality of the test data")</syntaxhighlight>

Shapiro-Wilk test for normality of the test data

statistic	p.value	method
0.93	0.377	Shapiro-Wilk normality test

Based on these results, since both p-values are >0.05 we do not reject the presumption of normality and can go on. If one or more of the p-values were less than 0.05 we would then use a Mann-Whitney test (also known as a Wilcoxon rank sum test) will be done, see below for more details.

Testing for Equal Variance

We generally use the car package which contains code for Levene’s Test to see if two groups can be assumed to have equal variance. For more details see @car:

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#load the car package library(car)</syntaxhighlight>

Loading required package: carData

Attaching package: 'car'

The following object is masked from 'package:dplyr':

    recode

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#runs the test, grouping by the Treatment variable leveneTest(Result ~ Treatment, data=test.data) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Levene's test on test data")</syntaxhighlight>

Warning in leveneTest.default(y = y, group = group, ...): group coerced to
factor.

Levene’s test on test data

statistic	p.value	df	df.residual
0.368	0.558	1	10

Performing the Appropriate Pairwise Test

The logic to follow is:

• If the Shapiro-Wilk test passes, do Levene’s test. If it fails for either group, move on to a Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test.
• If Levene’s test passes, do a Student’s t Test, which assumes equal variance.
• If Levene’s test fails, do a Welch’s t Test, which does not assume equal variance.

Student’s t Test

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#The default for t.test in R is Welch's, so you need to set the var.equal variable to be TRUE t.test(Result~Treatment,data=test.data, var.equal=T) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Student's t test for test data")</syntaxhighlight>

Student’s t test for test data

estimate	estimate1	estimate2	statistic	p.value	parameter	conf.low	conf.high	method	alternative
-1.1	8.79	9.89	-0.992	0.345	10	-3.56	1.37	Two Sample t-test	two.sided

Welch’s t Test

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">#The default for t.test in R is Welch's, so you need to set the var.equal variable to be FALSE, or leave the default t.test(Result~Treatment,data=test.data, var.equal=F) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Welch's t test for test data")</syntaxhighlight>

Welch’s t test for test data

estimate	estimate1	estimate2	statistic	p.value	parameter	conf.low	conf.high	method	alternative
-1.1	8.79	9.89	-0.992	0.345	9.72	-3.57	1.38	Welch Two Sample t-test	two.sided

Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test

<syntaxhighlight lang="r"># no need to specify anything about variance wilcox.test(Result~Treatment,data=test.data) %>% tidy %>% kable(caption="Mann-Whitney test for test data")</syntaxhighlight>

Mann-Whitney test for test data

statistic	p.value	method	alternative
12	0.394	Wilcoxon rank sum exact test	two.sided

Corrections for Multiple Observations

The best illustration I have seen for the need for multiple observation corrections is this cartoon from XKCD (see http://xkcd.com/882/):

Significance by XKCD. Image is from http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/significant.png

Any conceptually coherent set of observations must therefore be corrected for multiple observations. In most cases, we will use the method of @Benjamini1995 since our p-values are not entirely independent. Some sample code for this is here:

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">p.values <- c(0.023, 0.043, 0.056, 0.421, 0.012) data.frame(unadjusted = p.values, adjusted=p.adjust(p.values, method="BH")) %>%

 kable(caption="Effects of adjusting p-values by the method of Benjamini-Hochberg")</syntaxhighlight>

Effects of adjusting p-values by the method of Benjamini-Hochberg

unadjusted	adjusted
0.023	0.057
0.043	0.070
0.056	0.070
0.421	0.421
0.012	0.057

Session Information

<syntaxhighlight lang="r">sessionInfo()</syntaxhighlight>

R version 4.4.1 (2024-06-14)
Platform: x86_64-apple-darwin20
Running under: macOS Sonoma 14.7

Matrix products: default
BLAS:   /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/4.4-x86_64/Resources/lib/libRblas.0.dylib 
LAPACK: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/4.4-x86_64/Resources/lib/libRlapack.dylib;  LAPACK version 3.12.0

locale:
[1] en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/C/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8

time zone: America/Detroit
tzcode source: internal

attached base packages:
[1] stats     graphics  grDevices utils     datasets  methods   base     

other attached packages:
[1] car_3.1-2     carData_3.0-5 broom_1.0.6   dplyr_1.1.4   tidyr_1.3.1  
[6] knitr_1.48   

loaded via a namespace (and not attached):
 [1] vctrs_0.6.5       cli_3.6.3         rlang_1.1.4       xfun_0.47        
 [5] purrr_1.0.2       generics_0.1.3    jsonlite_1.8.8    glue_1.7.0       
 [9] backports_1.5.0   htmltools_0.5.8.1 fansi_1.0.6       rmarkdown_2.28   
[13] abind_1.4-8       evaluate_0.24.0   tibble_3.2.1      fastmap_1.2.0    
[17] yaml_2.3.10       lifecycle_1.0.4   compiler_4.4.1    htmlwidgets_1.6.4
[21] pkgconfig_2.0.3   rstudioapi_0.16.0 digest_0.6.37     R6_2.5.1         
[25] tidyselect_1.2.1  utf8_1.2.4        pillar_1.9.0      magrittr_2.0.3   
[29] withr_3.0.1       tools_4.4.1